Satisfaction in performing the task itself such as feeling accomplishment
Motivation: What is it
why is it important
·
Unfulfilled need:
desire is created to fulfill a need- as for food, safety, recognition
2. Motivation: you search for ways to satisfy the need
3. Behaviors: you choose a type of behavior you think might satisfy the need
4. Rewards: two types of rewards satisfy needs- extrinsic & intrinsic
- Extrinsic: satisfaction in the payoff from others such as money a person
receives from others for performing a particular task
- intrinsic: satisfaction in performing the task itself such as feeling
accomplishment a person receives from performing the particular task itself; an
internal reward, the payoff comes from pleasing yourself.
5. Feedback: reward informs you whether behavior worked and should be used
again
- people have certain needs that motivate them to perform specific behavior's
for which they receive rewards that feed back and satisfy the original need
Motivation
·
the psychological
processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior
Motivation is the
result of
·
personal and
contextual factors
Personal:
- personality
- ability
-core self- evaluations
- emotions
-attitudes
-needs
Contextual:
- org culture
- cross cultural values
- physical environment
- rewards and reinforcement
- group norms
- communication technology
- leader behavior
- org design
Why is motivation
important ?
·
in order of
importance, you want to motivate people to:
1. Join your organization; instill in talented workers the desire to work for
you
2. Stay with your organization; good or bad economic times
3. Show up for work at your organization;
4. Be engaged while at your organization; produce higher quality work and
better customer service
5. Do extra for your organization;
4 major perspectives
on motivation
·
Content perspective
(aka need based perspective): theories that emphasize the needs that motivate
people.
- " What kind of needs motivate employees in the work place?"
- Needs: physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior
- Content perspective includes 4 theories:
1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
2. McClellands acquired need's theory
3. Deci & Ryan's self determination theory
4. Herzberg's two factor theory
Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs
·
starting at the top;
people are motivated by five levels of needs
5- Self Actualization: need for self- fulfillment; increasing competence, using
abilities to the fullest (i.e sabbatical leave to further personal growth)
4- Esteem: need for self-respect, status, reputation, recognition, self-confidence
(i.e bonuses, promotions, awards)
3- Love: need for love, friendship, affection (i.e office parties, management
retreats)
2- Safety: need for physical safety, emotional security, avoidance of violence
(i.e health insurance, job security, work safety rules- pension plans satisfy)
1- Physiological: the basic human physical need. (i.e food, clothing, shelter,
comfort, self-preservation-- covered by wages)
- Maslow suggested needs are never fully satisfied; actions aimed at fulfilling
the "deprived" needs
-importance of contribution is that he showed that workers have needs beyond
that of just earning a paycheck- managers should first try to meet employees'
level 1 and level 2 needs
McClellands acquired
needs theory: achievement, affiliation and power
- acquired needs theory: states that three
needs- achievement, affiliation, and power are major motives determining
people's behavior in the workplace.
-McClelland believes we are not born with our needs but rather we learn them
from culture
1. Achievement: " I need to excel at tasks" desire to excel, do
something better or more efficiently, solve problems, achieve excellence in
challenging tasks, tend to advance in technical fields requiring creativity and
individual skills
2. Affiliation: " I need close relationships" desire for friendly and
warm relations w/ others, tend to prefer work such as sales
3. Power: " I need to control others" desire to be responsible for
other people, to influence their behavior or to control them, be recognized for
this responsibility,
2 forms of power:
1. personal: negative, the desire to dominate others, and involves manipulating
people for one's own gratification
2. institutional: positive, solve
Deci & Ryans Self
Determination Theory: C,A,R.
·
.
-
Self determination
theory: assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment,
with their behavior and well-being influenced by three innate needs:
Competence, autonomy, and relatedness
- focuses primarily on intrinsic motivation and rewards rather than on
extrinsic; intrinsic is longer lasting and a more positive impact
1. Competence: " I want to feel a sense of mastery"- people need to
feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable of completing a goal or task and to
learn different skills
2. Autonomy: " I want to feel independent and able to influence my
environment"- people need to feel they have freedom and the discretion to
determine what the want to do and how they want to do it
3. Relatedness: " I want to feel connected to other people"- people
need to feel a sense of belonging, of attachment to others
Applying self
determination to motivate employees
·
competence: provide
tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve employee
competence, making sure that employees have the knowledge and information they
need to perform their jobs
Ex: at a data storage company, managers regularly notify the vice chairman when
they catch someone doing something right and he makes 10-20 phone calls a day
to thank them
2. Autonomy: develop trust with their employees and empower them by delegating
meaningful tasks to them
Ex: Unilever provides smart phones and other technologies to 100,000 employees
to enable them to work anytime, anywhere, as long as they meet company needs
3. Relatedness: use camaraderie to foster relatedness
Ex: Sacramento based nugget market uses this
Herzberg's two factor
theory
- result of a landmark study of 203 accountants
and engineers who were interveiwed to determine the factors responsible for job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction
- two factor theory: proposed that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise
from two different factors- work satisfaction from motivating factors and work
dissatisfaction from hygeine factors
- hygiene factors: associated with job dissatisfaction; (e.g temperature in a
factory that's not air- conditioned during the summer. Installing AC will
remove dissatisfaction but not spur factory workers motivation)
- positive hygiene factors: allowing pets at work, offering video game arenas,
fitness classes, and intramural sports
- motivating factors: simply motivators associated with job satisfaction which
affect the job content or the rewards of work performance (e.g give factory
workers more control over their work such as repeating a single task over and
over, a worker might join with other workers on a team in which one does
several tasks)
-basic lesson: first eliminate dissatisfaction and then concentrate on spurring
motivation by providing opportunities for achivement, recognition,
responsibility, and personal growth
A comparison of needs
& satisfaction theories:
·
Maslow
- Higher level needs: Self actualization, esteem
- love is in the middle
- Lower level needs: Safety, Physiological
2. Herzberg
- Motivating factors " what will make my people satisfied?"
1. Achievement
2. Recognition
3. the work itself
4. responsibility
5. advancement and growth
- Hygiene factors" what will make my people dissatisfied?"
1. pay & security
2. working conditions
3. interpersonal relationships
4. company policy
5. supervisors
3. McClelland
- involves achievement, affiliation, and power
- "well balanced" individual: achievement, affiliation and power are
of equal size
- "control freak" individual: achievement is normal, but affiliation
is small and power is large
4. Deci & Ryan
- relationship of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
Motivation Equation:
Process Perspective
·
Inputs from
organizational members:
- time
-effort
- education
- experience
- skills
-knowledge
- work behaviors
2. Performance: Contributes to...
- org efficiency
- org effectiveness
- attainment of org goals
3. Outcomes received by org members:
- pay
- job security
- benefits
- vacation time
- job satisfaction
- autonomy
- responsibility
- a feeling of accomplishment
- the pleasure of doing interesting work
Process perspectives
- concerned with the thought processes by which
people decide how to act- how employees choose behavior to meet their needs
- try to understand why employees have different needs, what behaviors they
select to satisfy them, and how they decide if their choices were successful
- 3 process perspectives on motivation:
1. equity theory
2. expectancy theory
3. goal-setting theory
Equity theory
- focuses on employee perceptions as to how
fairly they think they are being treated compared with others; based on the
idea that employees are motivated to see fairness in the rewards they expect
for task performance
- developed by stacy adams
1. My inputs: "what does it seem like I am putting into the job?" time,
effort, training, seniority, creativity, intelligence, etc,
---- My inputs are compared w/ other employee inputs -----
Their inputs: " what does it seem like they are putting into the
job?" time, effort, training, etc.
2. my outputs: " what does it seem like i am getting out of the job?"
pay, benefits, praise, etc.
------ my outputs (rewards) are compared with other employees' outputs-----
their outputs: " what does it seem like they are getting out of the
job?" pay, benefits, praise, etc.
3. Equity is perceived: "Im satisfied and so I wont change my
behavior"
---- Comparison: "How does it seem the ratio of my inputs and outputs
compares with the ratio of theirs? Are they fair (equity) or unfair
(equity)?"---- make a judgement about fairness
Inequity is perceived: " Im dissatisfied and so I will change my
behavior"
- Either they perceive there is equity: satisfied with the ratio and so they
don't change their behavior
- Or perceive there is inequity: they feel resentful and act to change the inequity
Ways employees try to
reduce inequity
- employees who feel they are being
under-rewarded will respond to the perceived inequity in one or more negative
ways, as by...
-reduce their inputs: they will do less work, take long breaks, call in 'sick'
on mondays, leave early on Fridays, and so on
- they will try to change the outputs or rewards they receive: they will lobby
the boss for a raise, or they will pilfer company equipment
- they will distort the inequity: they will exaggerate how hard they work so
they can complain they're not paid what they're worth
- they will change the object of comparison: they may compare themselves with
another person instead of the original one
- they will leave the situation: they will quit, transfer, or shift to another
reference group
Practical lessons from
Equity Theory
·
Employee perceptions
are what count; each employee's perception of those factors is what count,
managers should provide positive recognition about employee behavior and
performance
2. Employee participation helps; managers benefit by allowing employees to
participate in important decisions
3. Having an appeal process help; employees are able to appeal decisions
affecting their welfare, it promotes the belief that mgt treats them fairly
* our perceptions of equity or fair treatment are significantly associated with
job satisfaction, commitment, performance and turnover
Expectancy theory: the
major elements
- by victor vroom; suggests that people are
motivated by two things (1) how much they want something and (2) how likely
they think they are to get it. People will make the choice that promises them
the greatest reward if they think they can get it.
1. Effort: I exert an effort.. in order to achieve
2. Expectancy: Will I be able to perform at the desired level on a task? .. in
order to achieve
- belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of
performance; effort-to performance expectancy
-e.g believe that putting in more hours working at target selling clothes will
result in higher sales, then you have high effort-to-performance expectancy
3. Performance: a particular level of task performance .. so that I can realize
4. Instrumentality: what outcome will i receive if i perform at this level...
so that i can realize
- expectation that successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome
desired; performance to reward expectancy
-e.g if you believe that making higher sales will cause target to give you a
bonus, then you have high performance-to-reward expectancy
5. Outcomes: certain outcomes (e.g pay, recognition)
6. Valence: how much do i want the outcome?
- value, the importance a worker assigns to the possible outcome or reward
-e.g if you assign a lot of importance or a high value to Target's prospective
bonus or pay raise, then your valence is said to be high.
** for your motivation to be high, you must be high on all 3 elements;
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
** principal problem with the expectancy theory is that it is complex
Practical lessons from
Expectancy theory
·
Motivational Force
(MF); force directing specific behavioral alternatives =
Expectancy (e-p); perceived likelihood that effort will lead to performance
-i.e self efficacy, goal difficulty, perceived control
X
Instrumentality (p-r); perceived likelihood that performance will lead to
desired rewards
- i.e trust, control, policies
X
Valence V(R); the value of expected rewards to the individual
- i.e needs, goals, values, preferences
Using expectancy
theory to motivate employees
·
what rewards do your
employees value?
2. what are the job objectives and the performance level you desire?
3. are the rewards linked to performance?
4. do employees believe you will deliver the right rewards for the right
performance?
Goal-setting Theory
- suggests that employees can be motivated by
goals that are specific and challenging but achievable
- according to Locke and Latham, it is natural for people to set and strive for
goals, but is only useful if people understand and accept the goals
1. Goals should be specific
2. Goals should be challenging but achieveable
3. Goals should be linked to action plans; action plan outlines the activities
or tasks that need to be accomplished in order to obtain a goal and remind us
of what we should be working on
4. Goals need not be jointly set to be effective
5. Feedback enhances goal attainment
The 4 motivational
mechanisms of goal-setting theory
·
It directs your
attention
2. It regulates the effort expended; effort you expend is generally
proportional to the goal's difficulty
3. It increases your persistence
4. It fosters use of strategies and action plans
Job design
·
the division of an
organization's work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational
theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance
- the traditional way is fitting people to jobs; the modern way is fitting jobs
to people
- fitting people to jobs is based on the assumption that people will gradually
adapt to any work situation; often taken with assembly-line jobs and hobs
involving routine tasks
Job simplification
- the process of reducing the number of tasks a
worker performs
- increasing employee efficiency and productivity
- may be useful in designing jobs for mentally disadvantaged workers
- simple, reptitive jobs lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, and a
low sense of accomplishment and personal growth
fitting to jobs to
people
o fitting jobs to people is based on the
assumption that poeple are underutilized at work and that they want more
variety, challeneges, and responsibility; one of the reasons for the popularity
of work teams in the US\
- job enlargement: consists of increasing the number of tasks in a job to
increase variety and motivation; proponents claim job enlargement can improve
employee satisfaction, motivation, and quality of production, research suggests
job enlargement by itself wont have a significant and lasting positive effect on
job performance; take on more work through horizontal loading
- job enrichment ( practical application of herzbergs 2 factor theory):
consists of building into a job such motiviating factors as responsibility,
achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement; take on more work
through vertical loading
Job characteristics
model
- by hackman and
oldham
- outgrowth of job enrichment
- model consists of (a) five core job characteristics that affect (b) three
critical psychological states of an employee that in turn affect (c) work
outcomes- the employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction
- positively associated with employee performance, job satisfaction, org
commitment, and physical and psycogloial well-being, and lower absenteeism and
inentions to quit.
- Five core job characteristics:
·
1. Skill Variety; extent to which a job requires a person to use a wide range
of different skills & abilities. (e.g the skill variety required by a
rocket scientist is higher than that for short-order cook)
2. Task identity; extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all the
tasks needed to complete the job from beginning to end (e.g task identity for a
craftsperson who goes through all the steps to build a handmade acoustic gutair
is higher than one who assembles windshields on cars)
3. Task significance; extent to which a job affects the lies of other people
(e.g a technician who is responisble for keeping a hospital's electronic
equipment in working order has higher significance than someone who wipes down
cars at a car wash)
4. Autonomy; extent to which a job allows an employee to make choices about
scheduling different tasks and deciding how to perform them (e.g college
textbook sales people have lots of leeway in planning which campuses and
professors to call on as opposed to a toll-taker on a bridge, whose actions are
determined by the flow of vehicles
5. Feed back; extent to which workers receive clear, direct information about
how well they are performing the job
-
Three psychological states:
1. Expereinced meaningfulness of work
2. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes
3. Knowledge of actual results of the work
- Work outcomes
1. High work motivation
2. High work performance
3. HIgh work satisfaction
4. Low absenteeism and turnover
Job design works when people are motivated in
which you need these factors;
Contingency factors: degree to which inidviduals
want personal and psychological development:
1. knowledge and skill
2. desire for personal growth
3. context satisfactions
Applying the Job
characteristics model
·
diagnose the work
enviornemnt to see whetehr a problem exists; indicate whether an individuals so
called motivating potential score (MPS) is high or low
2. Determine wheterh job redesign is appropriate; MPS score low- attempt should
be made to determine which of the core job characteristics is causing the
problem
3. consider how to redesign the job
Types of Reinforcement
·
-reinforcement
pioneered by thorndike and skinner; concerned with how the consequences of a
certain behavior affect that behavior in the future
- Skinner: father of operant conditioning; the process of controlling behavior
by manipulating its consequences and rests on thorndikes law of effect, states
that behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated and
behavior that results in unpleasant outcomes is not likely to be repeated
- reinforcement[ anything that causes a given behavior to be repeated or
inhibited] theory: attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that
behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with
negative consequences tends to not be repeated; the use of reinforcement theory
to change human behavior is called behavior modification
1. positive reinforcement (big bang theory gives penny chocolate to make her go
use her phone outside/ be quiet while watching tv); use of positive
consequences to strengthen a particular behavior; rewards employee
improvements- increases chances behavior will be repeated
2. Negative reinforcement (everybody loves raymond, no longer nag to send fruit
every month); process of strengthening a behavior by withdrawing something
negative ; avoids employee reprimands and no longer nags- increases chances
behavior will be repeated
3. Extinction; weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not
reinforced; withholds employee rewards- reduces chances behavior will be
repeated
4. Punishment; process of weakening behavior by presenting something negative
or withdrawing something positive; reprimands and disciplines employee- reduces
chances behavior will be repeated
* detailed example in power point *
Using reinforcement to
motivate employees
·
guidelines for
positive reinforcement and punishment
1. reward only desireable behavior
2. give rewards as soon as possible
3. be clear about what behavior is desired
4. have different rewards and recognize individual differences
Punishment: sometimes its best to combine punishment with positive
reinforcement
1. punish only desireable behavior; when they show FREQUENT undesireable
behavior
2. give reprimands or disciplinary actions as soon as posible
3. be clear about what behavior is deisreable
4. administer punishment in private
5. combine punishment and positive reinforcement; when reprimanding also say
what he/she is doing right
Is money best
motivator?
- most workers rate having a caring boss higher
than monetary benefits
Characteritics of the
best incentive compensation plans
·
1, rewards must be
linked to performance and be measurable
2. the rewards must satisfy the individuals needs
3. the rewards must be agreed on by managers and employees
4. rewards must be belieable and achievebale by employees
Most well-known incentive plans:
1. Pay for performance: aka merit pay, bases pay on one's results (e.g piece
rate, employees are paid according to how much output they produce and sales
commissions, which sales representatives are paid a % of the earnings the
company made from their sales)
2. Bonuses: cash awards given to employees who achieve specific performance
objectives (e.g neiman marcus pays its salespeople a percentage of the earnings
from goods they sell)
3. Profit sharing: distribution to employees of a % of the company's profits
(e.g t shirt company, 10% pretax profits are distributed to employees every
month)
4. Gainsharing: distribution of savings or "gains" to groups of
employees who reduced costs and increased measurable productivity (e.g pay out
money to employees in many locations who had been challenged to beat targets
set at the corporate level)
5. Stock options: certain employees are given the right to buy stock at a
future date for a discounted price (e.g starbucks corp gives stock options to
all employees who work 20 or more hours a week- high turnover!)
6. pay for knowledge: ties employee pay to the number of job-relevant skills or
academic degrees they earn
Nonemontary ways to
motivate employees
·
need for work-life
balance;
2. need to expand skills
3. need to matter
foremost example is the flexible workplace- including partime work, flex time
,compressed work week, job sharing, and telecommuting
other ways:
- show workers they matter through communication and interest in their ideas
& contributions; #1 reason people quit jobs is believed with their
dissatisfaction w/ supervisors
- work life beneifts: a way of getting work done, helping employees with day
care costs, or est. on site centers, job protected leave for new parents, etc.
- surroundings: make area open for creativity
- skill building & educational opportunities: either through shadowing or
tuition reimbursement for part time study
- sabbaticals: giving a month off to employee to enable them to recharge and
cement loyalty to your org.
TED Video in class
- the candle problem; overcome functional
fixedness
- is this result surprising to you? yes, correlation between being paid more
means less motivation
USA 
India